By: Rosemary Stephen PMed, (cert) EOH, IPM, Elements: Environmental Health Intelligence
Darryl Carpenter, the VP of Florida-based CW Roberts Contracting, and sub-contractor Otis Goodson found that some types of hay have the ability to bind oil like a sponge [1]. These men may have the most ecologically viable way of dealing with the oil spill from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico.
YouTube carries a video of Carpenter and Goodson demonstrating the binding abilities of hay to BP executives and the US Coast Guard [2]. It is a small scale demonstration using Coastal Bermuda grass hay and Bahia grass hay to pick up motor oil from a bowl of potable water. BP appeared interested at first, but when Carpenter approached BP again, the company only gave a generic response [3] [ 4]. Undaunted, Carpenter and Goodson repeated their demonstration, but this time in the Gulf of Mexico [5]. In the second demonstration, Coastal Bermuda grass hay and Bahia grass hay were used to soak up crude oil from seawater. Currently, Walton County is the only place in Florida’s Panhandle area which has agreed to use this technology to protect their coast line [6].
Are these the best plants and are there other plants that could be used to clean up an oil spill?
Approximately 33 percent of all green plant matter consists of the structural component called cellulose. Cellulose is the main component that allows plant stems to stand erect; it also helps plants resist drought. Other plant components include hemi-cellulose, lignin, waxes and most importantly for the oil cleanup process, a rigid, non-collapsing lumen. The lumen is a cavity that is bounded by a plant cell wall; the lumen provides large gaps where the oil collects and becomes trapped. These gaps exert capillary action and surface tension on crude oil similar to a sponge [7]. The presence of cellulose, waxes and noncolapsing lumen gives plants hydrophobic and oleophilicity abilities even in salt water [8] [9].
Plants that can be used in oil clean-up must have a high cellulose content, hydrophobic and oleophilicity abilities, good absorption capabilities, buoyancy even when saturated with oil, be resistant to wave action [10] and have the ability to be wrung out and reused to soak up more oil. Searching the web, I discovered that grass hay is not the only plant with such absorbent capabilities. Surprisingly, Coastal Bermuda Grass Hay (Cynodon dactylon x C. Transvaalensis ) and Pensacola Bahiagrass (P. notatum var.saurae Parodi), the two plants put forward by by Carpenter and Goodson, have some limitations. Although both plants have a high cellulose content, they do poorly in buoyancy. This means that they have the ability to pick up oil, but when they become oil saturated they will sink, usually in less than five minutes. This characteristic means these two plants should only be used for shore-side or beach oil clean-up operations [11]. See Table I for details.
Table I: Plants proposed by Darryl Carpenter and Otis Goodson
| Plant Name | Cellulose Percentage | Hydrophobic | Oleophilicity | Means of absorption | Buoyancy | Application |
| Coastall Bermuda Grass Hay (Cynodon dactylon x C. Transvaalensis ) [XXXVIII] | 70.7% [XXVI] | Low [XVIII] | High [XVIII] | Low [XVIII] | Shore-side or beach operations [XVIII] | |
| Bahia Grass Hay (Paspalum notatum) [XXVII]. Specifically Pensacola bahiagrass,(P. notatum var.saurae Parodi) [XXX] | 68 to 76% when sun cured [XXIX] | No Information found | No Information found | Low
Wax percentage low [XXX] |
No Information found |
Curious about this possible clean-up solution, I searched for other plants that could meet the oil absorption criteria laid out above; these plants are listed in Table II. They include: untreated Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), Kenaf core fibers (Hibiscus cannabinus L), Wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) and untreated Kapok (Ceiba pentandra).
Table II: Best plants to clean an oil spill
| Plant Name | Cellulose Percentage | Hydrophobic | Oleophilicity | Means of absorption | Buoyancy | Application |
| Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) untreated [IV, V, VII]
Cotton stalks (Gossypium hirsutum) [IV] |
90%
67.3% to 70% |
High | High | Wax [X] Hollow surface structure, and non-collapsing lumen | Good [XIX] | Open water [XXIII]
Used as a boom |
| Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) [VIII] | 74.5% | High | High | Wax [IX]
Noncollapsing lumen |
High [XX] | Open water Spread directly on spilled oil [IX] |
| Kenaf core fibers (Hibiscus cannabinus L) [XIV, XXII] | 47% to 57% [XV] | High | High | Capillary attraction [XVI] and wax [XXII] | High [XXII] | Oil smearing the shores. Awaiting EPA approval [XXIV] |
| Wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) [III] | 39% | High | High | hollow or fibrous stems [XVIII] | Water absorption increase after a few minutes in water [XVIII] | Land, beaches, or shorelines |
| Kapok untreated (Ceiba pentandra) [XII] | 35% | High | High | High [XI]
Non-collapsing lumen |
High [XIX] | Open water
Loose fiber or packed. [XI] |
There are also other plants, listed below in Table III, that do not have good hydrophobic and/or oleophilicity characteristics in their natural state, but could be treated and/or used as a composite fiber to improve their viability; a good example is Sugar cane bagasse [12]. It has a good absorption capacity once treated to remove its natural sugar. Sugar cane bagasse would also have to undergo chemical processes to gain in hydrophobic, oleophilicity and buoyancy capabilities. Wood chips may also be a possible sorbent. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency are, at the moment, doing a technical review on the ability of wood chips to soak up oil [13] and their application in booms.
Information on other plants such as Hemp (Cannabis spp.), Corn stalks (Zea mays) and Pasture grass suggests they absorb water into their fibers too quickly and trap oil too poorly to be useful in general oil absorption or in booms.
Table III: Plants improved through composite processes
| Plant Name | Cellulose Percentage | Hydrophobic | Oleophilicity | Means of absorption | Buoyancy | Application |
| Hemp (Cannabis spp.) [V]
Core fibers |
80%
30-40% [XIII] |
Low [XXXII] | High [XXI] | |||
| Wood, soft and hard [I] | 40% to 50% | Low | Low | Poor [IX] | Inside the oil booms to absorb and collect oil [XXXIII] | |
| Sugar cane bagasse [III] | 40% | High
if part of a composite material [XVII] |
High [XVII]
if part of a composite material Untreated High [XVIII] |
High if sugar is removed [XVII] | Low becomes wet quickly [XVIII] | Carbonized pith bagasse is effective in water [XXV] |
| Corn stalks (Zea mays) [II] | 35% to 45% | Low | Low | No application found | ||
| Flax (Linum usitatissium) [XXXV] | 34 % [XXXVI] | Low [XXXVIII] | High [XXXIV] | Small lumen | Low | No application found |
| Jute: white jute (Corchorus capsularis)
Tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius) [XXXVII] |
High lignin content about 12% [XXXIX] | Very Low [XXXVIII, XXXIX] | Very high,
but oil -impregnated fibers promote self-heating/cargo fire [XXXIX] . |
|||
| Pasture grass [VI] | 20% to 30% | Low | Low [XVIII] |
There are other plants with high cellulose contents and available in large quantities that may have some potential for oil spill cleanup, including Bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.) [14] at 50% to 60% cellulose, Reed (Phragmites communis) [15] at 44% to 46 % [16], Soybean stover (Glycine max) [17] at 39.2% [18], Sorghum stover (Sorghum spp. ) at 31% [19] and Alfalfa hay (Medicago sativa) [20] at 24% [21]. There was, however, not enough information on the web on their hydrophobic, oleophilicity and buoyancy capabilities for me to come to any definite conclusions.
How much plant material would be needed to clean up an oil spill?
Donald Sensing’s article “Hay for oil spill is no plan” estimates that 2 ounces (56.7 g) of hay per sq. ft. of oil is required for proper clean-up. Using the Gulf spill as an example, Mr Sensing says that the actual oil spill is “Six thousand sq. miles of oil or 172,232,755,200 square feet (16,000,422,958,08 square meters). That will require 21,529,094,400 pounds (9,785,952,000 Kg.) of hay to absorb [22]. ”
Using Table II and assuming the same plant material to sq. ft of oil ratio is required, we can substitute other plant fibers for hay –
- a round bale of cotton weighs approximately 480 pounds (217.72 kg)
- a round bale of milkweed weighs about 200 lbs (90.9 kg) [23]
- a standard bale of Kenaf (80cm x 40cm x 35cm or 31.5 in x 15.7 in x 13.7 in) weighs 18kg (39.6 lbs) [24]
- a bale of Kapok (60 x 70 x 90 cm or 23.6 x 27.5 x 35.4 in) weighs approximately 50 to 54.5 lbs (110-120 kilos) [25]
- a wheat straw bale measuring 5′ X 6′ (1,524m x 1.828m ) weighs between 1,100 lbs (500 kg) to 1500 lbs (700 kg) [26] [27]
If untreated cotton was used to soak up the oil, it would require 44,852,280 bales; milkweed would require 107,645,572 bales; Kenaf would require 543,664,000 bales; Kapok would require 430,581,888 to 395,029,255 bales and wheat straw would require 14,352,730 to 19,571,904 bales. These numbers could, however, be lower if less material was needed per sq. ft of oil. A good example is untreated cotton which can to soak up 40 times its weight [28].
The Logistics of Using Natural plant fibers in oil spill clean-up
Cleaning an oil spill the size of the Gulf oil spill from the Deepwater Horizon with plant materials has vast logistical issues requiring planning and proper infrastructure to manage all those bales, both before and after use. Storage itself is an issue. Large storage facilities and staging areas would be required. Round bales are awkward to maneuver and require special machinery to move them into storage facilities or onto flatbed transportation trucks. The bales would need to be wrapped in netting, twine or wire to hold their shape and be placed on a foundation of crushed-rock, on wooden pallets or on tires, never in direct contact with the soil or concrete. The moisture from the ground would eventually enter the plant fibers causing rot and reducing their absorbent abilities [29].
An integrated pest management plan would also be necessary to prevent rodent and wildlife infestation. The plan would include routine inspection and maintenance of storage facilities [30]. Myron Sullivan II, who developed the AEROS system and started Global Response Group (GRG) based in Vancouver, Canada, suggest that “In a proper response situation large amount of plant fiber material will have to be stored in close proximity to offshore rigs” [31]. If this is the case, more specialized equipment would be required to move plant fibers from the storage facilities and trucks to water craft. Once at sea, blowers can be used to spray the plant fibers over deep or shallow oil-covered water. Aircraft can also be used to spread the plant fibers, in this case, round bales must be unraveled and parachuted over the spill.
Occupational Health and Safety issues
Responding to an oil spill like the Gulf of Mexico requires proper planning to avoid unsafe situations; an emergency preparedness plan must be in place and there must be easy access to first aid and hospital services. If natural fibers are used as absorbents, the dust generated may cause allergies while the molds they are likely to contain may cause hypersensitivity pneumonitis [32] also called Farmer’s Lung [33]. Appropriate PPEs, specifically design for lung protection would be required.
Mr. Sensing, in his article entitled “Hay for oil spill is no plan” states that “simply carrying the hay to the spill appears to pose little logistic problem, but recovering it from the sea is an enormous problem since cargo vessels are entirely unequipped to do so [34].” If this is the case, than manual labor to remove oiled sorbent would require training and safety briefings that emphasize good work practices in handling heavy loads and in ergonomic methods of retrieving soiled fibers. If natural plant fibers are wrung out and reused, special PPEs such as body suites, gloves, and eye and lungs protection must be available to cleanup workers. The crew responsible for the handling and transportation of bales must also be certified on all the necessary machinery such has forklifts, tractors, blowers etc [35].
Waste Management
What do we do with all those oil soaked plant fibers? How and where will they be disposed – can they be recycled or must they be buried in special land fills ? Will disposal result in soil contamination that lasts for years, causing health and environmental worries? If faced with a major oil spill like the Gulf of Mexico, we would need 3,953,920 acres (1,600,094 hectares) of land to compost this waste [36]. It is not simply a matter of spreading truckload of oil soak plant fibers on farm soil and letting nature take over, it is instead a long process of managing the composting process through soil preparation.
The proper temperatures, an adequate supply of essential nutrients and the availability of oxygen is required in order to achieve high rates of decomposition of petroleum hydrocarbons imbedded in plant fibers [37]. Once land is available, the first step in site preparation is to remove any brush and rocks 6 inches (15 cm) or more in diameter. Leaving them will inhibit proper soil/oil mixing.
The second step is to level the site to a one percent to two percent grade to allow for proper drainage. The third step is to scarify the soil one (2.5 cm) to two inches (5 cm) deep in a cold climate, or three to four inches (7.6 to 10 cm) in warm climates. The oil-soaked fiber waste should be spread to a maximum of 5 inches (12.7 cm) thick. Once the waste has been laid down, the forth step will be the addition of soil nutrients through fertilizers to help support the growth of hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria [38].
Rototilling or harrowing is used mix the oily debris and soil to depths of 4 to 5 in (10 to 12.7 cm). Periodic mixing then helps to aerate the material and induce biodegradation. Depending on the site, plowing every 2 to 4 months can be required. The bioremediation process is completed when there is no traces of oil after remixing. This composting process take about two years to complete. Once completed, the land can now be used for revegetation [39].
Conclusion
Darryl Carpenter, the VP of Florida-based CW Roberts Contracting and sub-contractor Otis Goodson saw the potential of using hay to bind oil to its stalk. These men believe it is an ecological way to clean the spill at the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. Although this process has not selected to control the oil spill, it did pave the way to look at green solutions to an unprecedented pollution problem.
In this blog we have proposed a number of plants that have interesting potential, and others that although, not the best at soaking up the oil, could be used in a composite form increasing hydrophobic and oleophilicity abilities, absorption capabilities, buoyancy and their resistance to wave actions.
The sheer size of the Gulf oil spill makes it necessary to look closely at the logistics of using plant fibers as sorbent. It would be necessary to plan for and secure the required amounts plant fibers, set up how and where they would be stored, set up transshipment of the fibers to the spill site and manage the resulting waste. Integrating plant fibers into an emergency response plan that includes Occupational Health and Safety, Integrates Pest Management and Land Management for composting could, however, succeed in creating a green solution to oil spills.
Rosemary Stephen PMed, (cert) EOH, IPM (2010). Green Oil Spill clean-up ? Elements: Environmental Health Intelligence
End Notes
Cellulose is an organic compound and a structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants. It is crystalline in structure, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis
Hay (2010) Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (On-line) Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
Hemicellulose in contrast to cellulose, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength
Hemicellulose (2010) RPI Educ. (On-line) Available: http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/FUNDAMNT/hemicel.htm. Cited 2010 Jul 08.
Lignin is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae.
Lignin (2010) Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. (On-line) Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignin. Cited 2010 Jul 08.
Lumen is the cavity bounded by a plant cell wall.
Lumen (2010) The Free Dictionary. (On-line) Available: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lumen. Cited 2010 Jun 15.
Capillary action: The ability of a narrow interstice to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity due to surface tension. The siphoning of liquid into a joint or void between two adjacent surfaces.
Capillary action (2010) Wiktionary. (On-line) Available: http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capillary_action. Cited 2010 Jun 15.
Surface tension: The attraction of a liquid for any material with which it has contact. A high surface tension means low attraction and a low surface tension means a high degree of attraction.
Nevins, J. Glossary of Terms (2001) Inkjet Glossary. (On-line) Available: http://www.jnevins.com/inkjetglossary.htm. Cited 2010 Jun 15.
Hydrophobic: relating to, or having a lack of affinity for water.
Hydrophobic (2010) Merriam-Webster. (On-line) Available: http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/hydrophobic. Cited 2010 Jul 08.
Oleophilicity: having a strong affinity for oils rather than water.
Oleophilic (2010) WordNet Search. (On-line) Available: http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=oleophilic. Cited 2010 Jul 08.
Buoyancy: the tendency or capacity to remain afloat in a liquid or rise in air or gas.
Buoyancy (2010) Answer.com. (On-line) Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/buoyancy. Cited Jul 08.
Scarify: to loosen the soil with a cultivator.
Scarify (2010) Dictionary.com. (On-line) Available: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/scarify. Cited 2010 Jul 08.
References:
[1] Parks, A., The Gulf Oil Spill Needs a Hero (10 May 2010) The Huffington Post. (On-line) Available: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/alexia-parks/the-gulf-oil-spill-needs_b_568562.html. Cited 2010 Jun 15.
[2] CW Roberts Presentation 2.wmv (05 May 2010) YouTube. (On-line) Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5SxX2EntEo. Cited 2010 Jun 10.
[3] Elder, J. Hay: A Common-Sense Solution to BP Oil Clean-Up? (16 may 2010) Triplepundit. (On-line) Available: http://www.triplepundit.com/2010/05/hay-solution-bp-oil-spill-clean-up-florida/. Cited 2010 Jun 10.
[4] Lee, B.G, Han, J.S. and Rowell, R.M. Chapter 35, Oil Sorption by Lignocellulose Fibers (1999) Mississippi State University, Ag & Bio Engineering. (On-line) Available: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1999/lee99a.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 22.
[5] Bevis, B. Hay Isn’t Just For Horses, It Could Be Used to Soak Up Gulf Oil Spill (10 Jun 2010) The EquineChronicle. (On-line) Available: http://www.equinechronicle.com/lifestyle/hay-isnt-just-for-horses-it-could-be-used-to-soak-up-gulf-oil-spill.html. Cited 2010 Jun 23.
[6] Ibid. Cited 2010 Jun 23.
[7] Wilson, C. What polymers can absorb oil (2002) MadSci Network: Chemistry. (On-line) Available: http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2002-02/1014657853.Ch.r.html. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[8] Choi, H.M. and Cloud, R.M. Natural Sorbents in Oil Spill Cleanup (1992) Environmental Science and Technology. (On-line) Available: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es00028a016. Cited 2010 Jun 16.
[9] Sayed, S. A., El Sayed, A. S., S. M. and Zayed, A. M. Oil Spill Pollution Treatment by Sorption on Natural Cynanchum Acutum L. Plant (2003) Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Management. (On-line) Available: https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/retrieve/4695/ja03022.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 16.
[10] Lee, B.G, Han, J.S. and Rowell, R.M. Chapter 35, Oil Sorption by Lignocellulose Fibers (1999) Mississippi State University, Ag & Bio Engineering. (On-line) Available: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1999/lee99a.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 22.
[11] Design Guide for Oil Spill Prevention and Control at Substations (2008) Bulletin 1724E-302. Rural Development Utilities Programs, United States Department of Agriculture. (On-line) Available: http://www.usda.gov/rus/electric/pubs/1724e302.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 18.
[12] Jayasuriya, M.C.N. The use of fibrous residues in South Asia (2010) Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (On-line) Available: http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80362e/80362E06.htm. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[13] Wood chips reviewed to absorb oil (17 May 2010) 2theadvocate. (On-line) Available: http://www.2theadvocate.com/news/93959229.html. Cited 2010 Jun 30.
[14] Regenerated Cellulose Fabrics: Facts Behind the Fibers (2008) Organic Clothing Blogs.com. (On-line) Available: http://organicclothing.blogs.com/my_weblog/2008/07/regenerated-cellulose-fabrics-facts-behind-the-fibers.html. Cited 2010 Jun 14.
[15] Rowell, R. M. Composite Materials from Agricultural Resources (1995) Composite Materials from Agricultural Resources. (On-line) Available: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1995/rowel95e.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 28.
[16] Han, J.S. Properties of Nonwood Fibers (1998) USDA Forest Service. (On-line) Available: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1998/han98a.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 28.
[17] Appendix E, Scientific and Common Names, Genetically Modified Pest-Protected Plants: Science and Regulation (2000) The National Academies Press. (On-line) Available: http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9795&page=247. Cited 201 Jun 28.
[18] Soofi, R. and al. Digestibilities and Nutrient intake by sheep fed mixtures of soybean stover and alfalfa (2010) University of Illinois. (On-line) Available: http://jas.fass.org/cgi/reprint/54/4/841.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 28.
[19] Jayasuriya, M.C.N. The use of fibrous residues in South Asia (2010) Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (On-line) Available: http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80362e/80362E06.htm. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[20] Ibid. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[21] Ibid. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[22] Sensing, D. Hay for oil spill is no plan. (09 May 2010) Sense of Events. (On-line) Available: http://senseofevents.blogspot.com/2010/05/hay-for-oil-spill-is-no-plan.html. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[23] Plant of the week, Milkweed (2010) Cooperative Extension Services, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas. (On-line) Available: http://www.arhomeandgarden.org/plantoftheweek/articles/Milkweed.htm. Cited 2010 Jul 06.
[24] Kenaf (2008) Living Green Enterprises Inc. (On-line) Available: http://www.living-green.ca/kenaf.html. Cited 2010 Jul 06.
[25] Kapok (2010) C.V. Randu Sari. (On-line) Available: http://www.commerce.com.tw/modules.php?modules=products&action=detail&ID=E0187780&no=126016. Cited 2010 Jul 06.
[26] How much does a round straw bale wheat straw weigh? (2010) WikiAnswers, Answers.com. (On-line) Available: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_much_does_a_round_straw_bale_wheat_straw_weigh. Cited 2010 Jul 06.
[27] Rowlett, R. How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement (2001) University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (On-line) Available: http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/dictB.html. Cited 2010 Jun 30.
[28] Davis, J. Cotton Could Serve as Cleanup Medium for Oil Spill: Researchers (17 May 2010) Phyorg.com. (On-line) Available: http://www.physorg.com/news193336738.html. Cited 2010 Jun 23.
[29] Shemaker, G. E. and al. Alfalfa, The high-quality hay for horses.(2010) Universities of Idaho, Wisconsin and Kentucky. (On-line) Available: http://www.alfalfa.org/pdf/Alfalfa%20for%20Horses%20%28low%20res%29.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[30] Design Guide for Oil Spill Prevention and Control at Substations (2008) Bulletin 1724E-302. Rural Development Utilities Programs, United States Department of Agriculture. (On-line) Available: http://www.usda.gov/rus/electric/pubs/1724e302.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 18.
[31] Harris, M. Oil Spill Update: Can Kevin Costner – Or Anyone Else – Clean Up this Mess? (25 May 2010) The faster Times. (On-line) Available: http://thefastertimes.com/energy/2010/05/25/got-a-suggestion-for-the-oil-spill-bps-listening/. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[32] Demirjian, N. MD. Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (19 May 2010) eMedicine. (On-line) Available: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/299174-overview. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[33] What is Farmer’s Lung? (2008) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. (On-line) Available: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/farmers_lung.html. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[34] Sensing, D. Hay for oil spill is no plan. (09 May 2010) Sense of Events. (On-line) Available: http://senseofevents.blogspot.com/2010/05/hay-for-oil-spill-is-no-plan.html. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[35] Design Guide for Oil Spill Prevention and Control at Substations (2008) Bulletin 1724E-302. Rural Development Utilities Programs, United States Department of Agriculture. (On-line) Available: http://www.usda.gov/rus/electric/pubs/1724e302.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 18.
[36] Sensing, D. Hay for oil spill is no plan. (09 May 2010) Sense of Events. (On-line) Available: http://senseofevents.blogspot.com/2010/05/hay-for-oil-spill-is-no-plan.html. Cited 2010 Jun 29.
[37] Use of Reclaimed Water and Sludge in Food Crop Production (1996) Public Health Concerns About Chemical Constituants in Treated Wastewater and sludge, Commission on Geosciences, Environment and Resources. (On-line) Available: http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=5175&page=102. Cited 2010 Jun 25.
[38] Ibid. Cited 2010 Jun 25.
[39] Ibid. Cited 2010 Jun 25.
Table References
[I] Wilson, C. What polymers can absorb oil (2002) MadSci Network: Chemistry. (On-line) Available: http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2002-02/1014657853.Ch.r.html. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[II] Rymsza, T. Agricultural Residues in Pulp and Paper Discussion Paper (2010) Vision Paper. (On-line) Available: http://www.visionpaper.com/PDF_speeches_papers/Agricultural%20Residues%20in%20Pulp%20a.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[III] Jayasuriya, M.C.N. The use of fibrous residues in South Asia (2010) Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (On-line) Available: http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80362e/80362E06.htm. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[IV] Balasubramanya, R. H. Dr. and al. UTILISATION OF COTTON PLANT BYPRODUCE FOR VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS (2007) Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology. (On-line) Available: http://www.ecocoboard.net/dwnloads/Presentations%20workshop/Balasubr_Alternative%20building%20panels.pdf. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[V] Gettman, J. Hemp and the new energy technologies (2010) The UK Cannabis Internet Activists (UKCIA. org). (On-line) Available: http://www.ukcia.org/research/HempAndTheNewEnergyTechnologies.php. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
[VI] Harcourt-Brown, F. Diet and Husbandry (2002) Textbook of Rabbit Medicine, Reed Educational and professional Publishing Ltd. (On-line) Available: http://books.google.ca/books?id=pv8Ss20uQuYC&pg=RA1-PT21&lpg=RA1-PT21&dq=cellulose+content+of+hay&source=bl&ots=IKIKVzljT9&sig=kBBejQJkrMPY1ArwMojiJRsXkLM&hl=en&ei=JLsXTKLoBJO6Nty0hbYL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=cellulose%20content%20of%20hay&f=false. Cited 2010 Jun 15.
[VII] Bioremediation Via MICROBES Can Clean The Oil Spill! (2010) Facebook. (On-line) Available: http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=124237440942194. Cited 2010 Jun 11.
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[IX] Choi, H.M. and Cloud, R.M. Natural Sorbents in Oil Spill Cleanup (1992) Environmental Science and Technology. (On-line) Available: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es00028a016. Cited 2010 Jun 16.
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